Appendix A: Instructional Strategies
Analogies
Analogies can help learners understand concepts by relating new information to their prior knowledge. Discussed along with metaphors in Chapter 10.
Annotated Bibliography
Students writing a research paper or collecting information for decision making are asked to compile a list of citations and provide a brief annotation. Students might be asked to evaluate each source, explaining its relevance to their topic and its trustworthiness or authority. Discussed in Chapter 9 as an assessment tool.
Application Card
An application card is a brief writing exercise in which learners are asked to list one or more ways they might use their new skills or knowledge. Discussed as part of the short writing exercises for assessment in Chapter 9.
Brainstorm/Carousel Brainstorm
Brainstorming activities encourage learners to identify anything they can think of related to a topic. These activities can be done individually, or learners can work in groups to pool their knowledge. A fun variation on a collective brainstorm is the carousel brainstorm. In this version, the instructor identifies different aspects or subtopics of the subject under study, perhaps posted on large sheets around the room. Small groups of learners are assigned to brainstorm a single subtopic. After a few minutes, the groups rotate to a new subtopic and add what they can to the previous group’s work. When each group has had a turn at each subtopic, the original group reviews and synthesizes the full class brainstorm of their subtopic and presents the information to the class. Discussed in Chapter 4 as an active learning strategy (with a practice activity) and in Chapter 7 as a pre-assessment activity.
Case-Based Learning
In case-based learning, the instructor presents learners with a scenario for discussion. Good cases will present an ambiguous situation. Discussed in Chapter 17.
Circle of Voices
Learners break into small groups and sit in a circle. Each learner gets 2-3 minutes to speak without interruption in response to a question or prompt. Once everyone in the group has had a turn, the group can have a more general discussion on the topic. Discussed in Chapter 10.
Concept Map
Learners create visual displays of the connections or relationships among ideas. Generally, a learner will begin with a single idea and brainstorm to identify other words and concepts, which they arrange around the original idea, with lines illustrating how the concepts relate. Discussed in Chapter 4 (with an example) as an active learning strategy and in Chapter 7 (with an example) as a pre-assessment activity.
Debate
In a debate, discussions are structured to examine different perspectives of a question or the merits of different strategies. Discussed in Chapter 10.
Demonstration
Instructors use demonstrations to model skills and processes and to walk learners through the steps of a task. Demonstrations are described as a teaching strategy in Chapter 10. Learners might be asked to demonstrate tasks as an assessment strategy, as discussed in Chapter 9.
Directed Paraphrasing
Learners are asked to explain a concept or define a term in their own words. Discussed as part of the short writing exercises for assessment in Chapter 9.
Discussion
During discussions, students reflect on and respond to readings, questions, or other prompts. Discussions can be carried out in large- or small-group formats, although smaller groups are generally more conducive to in-depth discussions and allow for more student participation. Discussed briefly in Chapter 4 as an active learning strategy; specific implementation strategies are detailed in Chapter 10 and Chapter 17.
Exit Ticket
Exit tickets are brief writing exercises in which learners are asked to answer brief questions or respond to a short prompt on the lesson material. These activities are referred to as “exit tickets” because they are typically done at the end of the session and learners hand them in on their way out of class. Discussed as part of the short writing exercises for assessment in Chapter 9.
Fishbowl Discussion
In a fishbowl discussion, one group of learners engages in a discussion while another group observes, takes notes, and then summarizes the main points. This discussion strategy can promote active listening. Discussed in Chapter 10.
Flipped Classroom
Prior to attending class, students read texts and watch videos that cover the same content the instructor would have delivered through an in-class lecture, allowing in-class time to be used for practice problems and skill building. Discussed in Chapter 4 and Chapter 10.
Games
In the classroom, games have an element of competition, but their purpose is to impart information or develop skills. Discussed in Chapter 10.
Graphic Organizers
Graphic organizers are visual materials that assist learners in taking notes and organizing information, such as a table with labeled columns and rows to fill in, or a figure to be labeled. Discussed in Chapter 10 and Chapter 11; example in Chapter 3.
Guided Notes
See graphic organizers and lecture outline.
Jigsaw
Learners are assigned to groups, with each group working on a different aspect of a larger project. Once learners complete their assigned task, the instructor shuffles students into new groups, with at least one representative from each of the initial groups, and learners piece together the work from their original groups to complete the larger project. Discussed in Chapter 4 and Chapter 10.
K-W-L Chart
In a K-W-L chart, learners record what they know, want to learn, and learned about a topic. Discussed in Chapter 7 (with an example) as a pre-assessment.
Lecture
Lectures can be used to provide a concise introduction to a topic, organize and explain complex material, and/or synthesize current research. Strategies for integrating active learning into lectures are provided in Chapter 10.
Lecture Outlines
Lecture outlines are a form of guided notetaking; they provide students with a framework for the lesson, drawing their attention to important points. Discussed in Chapter 10 (with an example).
Lecture Pause
The instructor stops the lecture and ask learners to write down everything they remember from the lecture up to that point or the two or three most important things they remember). Discussed in Chapter 4 and Chapter 10 as a way to integrate active learning into a large lecture.
Metaphors
Metaphors can help learners understand concepts by relating new information to their prior knowledge. Discussed along with analogies in Chapter 10.
Minute Paper
The minute paper is a brief writing activity that asks learners to reflect on their learning by taking roughly one minute to react to the day’s lesson. Instructors often guide the reflection by asking learners to recall one or two new things they have learned and/or to identify the “muddiest point” of the lesson, or the section they found most confusing or about which they still have questions. Discussed in Chapter 4 and Chapter 10.
One Sentence Summary
Learners are asked to distill a topic or idea into a single sentence. Discussed as part of the short reflective writing exercises for assessment in Chapter 9.
Peer Instruction
In classrooms where all learners have equivalent experience with the topic, instructors introduce a new concept or skill, then have learners take turns explaining to one another what they have just learned. In mixed classrooms, instructors can pair or group learners who have more experience with the content with those who have less, allowing the experienced learners to do some of the instruction. Discussed in Chapter 4 and Chapter 10 as an active learning strategy.
Polls
Polls present brief questions meant to gauge student knowledge or understanding. Discussed in Chapter 7 as a pre-assessment strategy, in Chapter 9 as an assessment strategy, and in Chapter 10 as an instructional strategy.
Pre-Writing
Pre-writing is a way to brainstorm or capture ideas before delving more deeply into a lesson. Discussed in Chapter 10.
Pro/Con Chart
Learners complete a chart listing the advantages and disadvantages of a tool or search strategy. Discussed in Chapter 9 as an assessment strategy.
Problem-Based Learning
The instructor presents a messy, fuzzy, or ill-defined problem which the class works to solve, often in small groups. Discussed in Chapter 10 and Chapter 17.
Role Play
Learners practice new skills by acting out the kinds of roles or positions they anticipate encountering in the real world. Discussed in Chapter 4 as an active learning strategy.
Scavenger Hunt
Participants receive a list of items or locations to find within the physical library. Discussed in Chapter 4 and Chapter 10.
Skits
Learners script and perform a brief play illustrating a relevant scenario, situation, or process. Discussed with role play in Chapter 4 as an active learning technique.
Storytelling
Instructors can use stories in class to grab learner attention or explain material in engaging ways. Discussed in Chapter 10.
Student Demonstration
Student show one another how they worked through a particular task or problem while the instructor acts as a coach from the sidelines, offering feedback or suggestions if the student gets stuck. Discussed in Chapter 4 as an active learning strategy.
Think-Pair-Share
Instructors pose a question or brief scenario, then pause for learners to think about their responses. After a few minutes, learners pair up to share responses and discuss their thoughts and reactions. Finally, instructors ask for a few volunteers to share the ideas from their discussion with the whole group. Discussed in Chapter 4 and Chapter 10 as a low-stakes active learning strategy.
Worksheets
Worksheets can be used in class or as a take-home assignment. Question types include closed-ended questions like multiple choice and true/false, fact-based questions with a single right answer, and short-answer questions that require learners to explain a concept or justify their reasoning. Discussed as a pre-assessment tool in Chapter 7 and as an assessment tool in Chapter 9 (with examples).